Proton rocket payload m. m. Khrunichev. Conclusions and perspectives

UR-500 Proton - Soviet/Russian heavy launch vehicle developed by OKB-52 Chelomey (now Khrunichev GKNPTs) in the 1960s.

History of Proton rockets

In the early 1960s, the space race between the USSR and the USA reached its peak. Space exploration and the emergence of a huge number of new technologies and techniques made the recently developed rockets obsolete. Already by the beginning of the 1960s, the leadership of the USSR decided to create a new generation of rockets capable of launching both a large payload and heavy super-powerful nuclear charges into space.

The main design schools participated in the competition: the Korolev Design Bureau proposed the N-1 rocket, the Yangel Design Bureau the heavy R-56 rocket, and the Design Bureau No. 52 under the leadership of Chelomey proposed a family of missiles under the name UR - Universal Rocket. Chelomey planned to create 4 unified missiles at once: the UR-100 light ICBM, the UR-200 medium ICBM, the UR-500 heavy carrier and the UR-700 super-heavy carrier.

As a result of the competition, it was decided to abandon the light rocket option. Design Bureau No. 52 received an order for a medium ICBM and a heavy carrier. An order for a super-heavy carrier was received by Korolev with his H-1.

Initially, the UR-500 assumed a "package" scheme, composed of four UR-200 missiles connected in parallel, with a third stage, also created on the basis of the UR-200. Over time, such a scheme was abandoned in favor of a tandem one, although the upper stages were nevertheless created from the UR-200.

The rocket was created both as a civilian one - for delivering heavy loads into space, and a military one - as a strategic carrier of super-heavy bombs with a capacity of up to 150 megatons. To do this, the rocket had to be very powerful, because, for example, the AN602 hydrogen bomb (the famous Kuzkin's mother or Tsar bomb) created in 1961 with a capacity of 58 megatons weighed 26.5 tons and did not fit in the bomber fuselage.

For the UR-500, the RD-253 engines developed at the Glushko Design Bureau were adapted. At one time, this engine was rejected by Korolev in the N-1 project due to the toxic fuel used in it. It was decided to apply this technology to the UR-500, although the toxicity of the fuel is still the main complaint about Proton rockets.

The project was in serious danger of being closed after the resignation of Khrushchev, who supported him. The UR-200 project was closed as duplicating the already existing R-9 ICBM project. However, after a long confrontation between politicians and engineers, it was decided to keep the UR-500 in the civilian version.

The first launch of the two-stage version of the UR-500 was made in 1965 with a load of 8.4 tons. In total, in 1965-1966, 4 launches were carried out, delivering Proton satellites into space. Initially, the rocket was planned to be called Hercules, but due to the fact that the first 2 years of the UR-500 were delivered into space by Proton satellites, they themselves began to call it that.

At the same time, the development of a heavy version of Proton-K began - already a three-stage one for the possibility of flights to the Moon. This rocket took off in 1967 with a prototype of a future ship to fly around the moon.

However, the Lunar program of the USSR was not successful: out of 11 launches of Proton-K and the lunar ship, only 1 was recognized as completely successful, and only 6 out of 21 launches of Proton-K were recognized as successful. Together with the unsuccessful launches of N-1 rockets and the fact that Apollo 11 reached the moon in 1969, the program was curtailed in the USSR.

Due to the high accident rate and a large number Proton-K was put into service only by 1978 after 61 launches.

Proton-K has been used to launch various scientific, military and civilian spacecraft. The rocket was used to launch a payload into low orbits, a four-stage rocket was used to launch spacecraft into high ones. Depending on the modification, the rocket was capable of launching up to 21 tons of payload into an orbit with a height of 200 km and up to 2.6 tons into geostationary orbit.

In the first decade of the 21st century, the Proton-K rocket was replaced by a modernized version of the Proton-M, which is successfully operated in Russia.

Proton rocket design

UR-200

The basic UR-500 was a two-stage missile, in which the first stage, more powerful, was specially developed, and the second stage was inherited from the UR-200. The rocket could launch up to 8.4 tons of cargo into low orbit.

The first stage is seven-block: one central, surrounded by six side blocks. The central block includes a tail section, a transition section and an oxidizer tank, there are no engines. The side blocks contain tail compartments with RD-253 engines, fuel tanks and forward compartments.

The second stage consists of transitional, fuel and tail compartments. Equipped with three engines RD-0210 and one RD-0211 (can provide pressurization of fuel tanks).

Proton-K

The appearance of the Proton-K modification required a number of changes to the second stage of the base rocket to enable the addition of a third and fourth stage. This made it possible to increase the payload mass and operate in higher orbits.

The power of the first stage engines was increased by 7.7% (the updated engines received the RD-275 index).

In the second stage, the fuel tanks were enlarged and the design of the transition compartment between the first and second stages was changed.

The third stage - new for the UR-500 - consists of instrument, fuel and tail compartments. It was developed on the basis of the second stage, but shortened and installed 1 RD-0212 engine + a small RD-0214 steering engine.

Proton-M

By 2012, the main missile of Russia was an updated version of the Proton-M. It was created on the basis of modification "K", but a number of changes were made to it, first of all, to the control system. Thanks to this, the rocket burns fuel more efficiently, spent stages return to Earth more accurately, gains the ability to maneuver in space, and also allows you to install larger loads. Also, the RD-275 engines were replaced by RD-276, which increased the weight of the cargo thrown at the GPO by 650 kg.

All stages use a fuel composed of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH or heptyl) and nitrogen tetroxide. This fuel has made it possible to simplify engines, but is considered extremely toxic.

Booster blocks

For the final launch of the cargo into orbit and maneuvering in space, upper stages DM and Briz-M are used.

Block DM (originally Block D) was created in OKB-1 Korolev. After upgrading to the DM version, the unit could operate in space for up to 9 hours with three possible launches. Now new modifications are being created on its basis.

The Briz-M block is designed for Proton-M missiles and is a universal and most actively used system. The block allows you to increase the load weight up to 3.5 tons on the GSO. It was first launched in 2001.

Video of the launch of the Proton-M launch vehicle

Proton rocket operation

The development of a launch vehicle was one of the main programs in Soviet cosmonautics. Despite a series of failures in the first years of its existence, along with the "seven" (RN Vostok, RN Soyuz, etc.), the Proton rocket became one of the most used launch vehicles in the Soviet and later in Russian cosmonautics. Over time, the initial design flaws were worked out, and the Proton is currently one of the most reliable carriers ever created.

The Proton rocket is manufactured at the GKNPTs im. Khrunichev. The assembled elements of the rockets are delivered to the spaceports by railway. The final assembly of the rocket and preparation for launch is carried out at the cosmodrome at site 92A-50.

Launches are carried out from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Of the four launch pads built for the rocket during the Soviet period, three are in operation: pads 81L, 81P and 200L.

Established specifically to promote commercial launches international company International Launch Services (ILS). In 2011, 72 launches were carried out under the auspices of the ILS.

Starting from 1965, the Proton launch vehicle in its three modifications was launched 409 times (2015), of which 27 launches were unsuccessful and 20 were partially unsuccessful.

It is planned that by 2020 the rocket will give way to a new, more advanced and environmentally friendly Angara rocket.

The design of modifications of rockets Proton

Proton is one of the largest car manufacturers in Malaysia, which specializes in the manufacture of vehicles under the license of Mitsubishi.

For the first time, the production of vehicles in Malaysia began in 1983 in connection with the signing of an interstate agreement between the local Malaysian auto company Heavy Industry of Malaysia, as well as the Japanese concern Mitsubishi Motor Corporation. The first representatives of the "Proton Saga" were rolled off the assembly line in 1985. The Saga (Iswara, Magma) hatchback or sedan was an externally modified 1983 Lancer. The car was equipped with a more reinforced suspension, which ensured the efficient operation of transport in local conditions.

In 1991, the so-called transformation took place. common enterprise to Public Limited Company (PLC), which was freed from the influence of Mitsubishi Motor Corp. In 1995, the company becomes one of the constituent elements of the DRB-HICOM group.

In early 1996, the first show of the Proton Perdana middle class sedan takes place, this model was created on the basis of the Mitsubishi Eterna. Toward the end of the year, Proton decides to acquire a controlling stake (80%) of the shares of Lotus, a British company.

Proton is rather "briskly" expanding the range of its modgel range, which a few years ago included only models licensed by Mitsubishi.

The 400 series vehicles are quite similar in design to the Mitsubishi Lancer. Cars are produced with sedan bodies, as well as a 5-door hatchback.

The Proton Putra 218 GLXi is a replica of the famous 1991 Mitsubishi Mirage two-door coupe. The car does not have a bright and original "appearance", however, it looks pretty good and harmonious. The model is equipped with a spoiler, which is located on the trunk roof, as well as a chrome-plated tip placed on the double-barreled exhaust pipe.

The Wira Cabrio was based on the Satria model. By appearance the models are quite different from each other, mainly due to the use of a different body kit.

So, the largest and most powerful car company in Malaysia, Proton Otomobil Nasional Berhad, produced more than 169 thousand cars during 2000. Nevertheless, the company is not going to stop there, and in the near future it will significantly expand the range offered with its own development models that will not be produced under a Mitsubishi license.

So, at the beginning of 2000, the world saw a new Waja model, which since the summer of 2001 has been introduced to European markets under the sonorous name - Impian, which means "a dream comes true" in the native Malaysian language. This model is an exclusively Malaysian development with the help of Lotus engineers.

Since 2003, Malaysia has eliminated huge import duties vehicles, which is why the local car manufacturer Proton is making every effort not to be forced out by "import guests".

Cosmonautics has always been a "trump card" of our country, a reason for the pride of its citizens. Ever since the time of the first man in space, we have become accustomed to the dynamic development of this industry, which is one of the most significant geopolitical arguments.

Unfortunately, the devastation in the 1990s set the industry back significantly, but in recent times everything starts to improve. Proof of this can be the resumed flights of the Proton-M heavy rocket, which is capable of launching record volumes of cargo into orbit.

History of creation

By 1960, which was almost officially considered the time of the unprecedented rise of Soviet cosmonautics, the need for the state in a very powerful launch vehicle, which could put even more cargo into orbit, became finally clear. Of course, the "first violin" in lobbying for such plans was played not even by official astronautics, but by the military, who needed a powerful "truck" to transport heavy military cargo into space.

Both sides of the Cold War in those years showed an unprecedented interest in plans for launching superpowered vehicles. Fortunately, the military of the USSR and the USA still did not reach the practical implementation of such suicidal steps, but the Proton-M rocket was already ready by that time.

Let us return to the immediate history of creation. OKB-52 was entrusted with the development, headed by Chelomey V.N. In order for this bureau to be able to cope with the unimaginable amount of work that had to be completed in a relatively short time, it was necessary to include more than a dozen aviation design bureaus from all over the country.

Already in 1962, the first prototype was created. The missile was called "UR-200". From 1962 to 1964, nine test launches were carried out at once. new technology.

New prototype

All of them were successful, but in 1961, even before the start of test flights, Chelomey himself insisted on developing a new prototype. According to calculations, it should have become five (!) times heavier than the original version!

Initially, the creators wanted to take the path of "least resistance" by connecting two UR-200 missiles and adding another booster stage to the resulting design. However, preliminary calculations have already clearly shown that the reliability of such a design will obviously leave much to be desired.

As a result, it was decided to create a new UR-500 rocket, but to somewhat simplify the calculations, the scientists settled on a compromise: taking a sequential arrangement of stages, they used the same for the UR-200 as the upper part. Of course, the original project has been significantly redesigned.

Engines

The developers had to tinker with the engines. The fact is that as a result of long disputes, they chose a polyblock version of the layout of the first stage. Such a scheme made it possible to fit into the technological spans of bridges and tunnels when transporting rocket stages, but imposed some restrictions on the fuel used.

The classical oxygen-kerosene pair was practically impossible, since it would have required a significant increase in size, and therefore poisonous asymmetric dimethylhydrazine with nitrogen tetroxide as an oxidizer was chosen as fuel.

On this basis, there was a conflict with Korolev, who demanded kerosene. Until 1965, large-scale tests of the new power plant were carried out in conditions as close as possible to reality.

Further history

As often happened in the domestic astronautics of those years, politics dominated everything. By 1965, when the project was already in fact completely ready, the enterprise was tormented by checks on the orders of L.I. Brezhnev. He treated the legacy of his predecessor with undisguised distrust.

And because the development of "UR-200" was finally stopped. Fortunately, the 500th model managed to be defended. In mid-1965, the Proton satellite was successfully launched into orbit. It was possible to receive a signal from it only a few hours after being put into orbit, so for a long time the launch was considered unsuccessful.

In the first press publications, the rocket was erroneously named after the satellite. And it soon took root, and therefore it was from 1965 that Proton-M appeared in our astronautics. More precisely, instead of the “M” index, the rocket had the “K” prefix.

It began to be called modernized only in 2001, when cargo was first thrown into orbit with the help of it.

Main characteristics

The characteristics of this miracle of Soviet-Russian rocket science are indeed impressive. The layout of the rocket is three-stage. The very mass of "Proton A E M" - 702 tons! The rocket allows you to launch six tons of payload into geotransfer orbit at once.

The first step has a diameter of more than six meters, the third - more than four. Given that very toxic components are used as fuel, the strictest observance of all pre-flight preparation standards for both the rocket itself and the launch pad for it is required.

At the same time, the launch cost is less than $100 million. By the way, for the American rocket Delta IV Heavy, which is one of the main competitors of our Proton-M apparatus, this figure is equal to ... 265 million dollars. Three times higher!

Sad statistic

Alas, the title of the article contains the word “crash” for a reason. This carrier became famous far not only for the dimensions and quantity of the output cargo. The fact is that the Proton-M rocket is known for the number of its unsuccessful launches. This tradition has been going on since its predecessor.

Judge for yourself. Of the first four launches that took place between 1965 and 1966, one was already unsuccessful due to the failure of the second upper stage. However, it would be strange to expect the opposite, since testing a fundamentally new technology of this kind is always associated with a high probability of failure.

In general, in total, approximately 47 cases were recorded when the launch of Proton-M ended in failure. Considering that there were about 400 launches in total, we get about 89% of successful launches.

The most famous disasters

The accidents of this launch vehicle would hardly have caused such a wide public outcry (especially since emergency situations happened to the Proton all the time), but only the development of the domestic system - GLONASS is associated with its launches.

So those 100 million dollars that the launch itself costs are simply insignificant in comparison with the damage that the state incurs in the event of the loss of at least one such satellite. This was especially evident in 2010, when three satellites of the GLONASS constellation at once went not into orbit, but to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean.

The damage then amounted to about 3 billion rubles, not counting the price of the rocket itself. As a result of this accident (due to errors in filling the stages with fuel), dozens of high-ranking "space" officials lost their posts.

In 2011, again, due to problems with the rocket engines, it was not possible to put the unique Express AM4 satellite into the correct accelerating orbit. It was with him that the complete transition to digital television broadcasting in our country was associated. The whole world tried to save the device: telemetry stations all over the planet were involved, but it was not possible to prevent the satellite from burning up in the atmosphere.

The cost of damage is estimated at least 10 billion rubles.

In 2012, there was actually a similar story with two communication satellites. Again, due to malfunctions in the rocket fuel system, the vehicles were put into the wrong orbit. It was not possible to establish contact with them, the equipment was recognized as lost. The cost of damage is about the same 10 billion.

In mid-2013, the epic with GLONASS continued. Again, three long-suffering satellites (!) exploded along with the rocket. The investigation was thorough. This time, the sensors were to blame, which, during assembly, were installed with a rotation of 180 degrees from the normal position. Because of this, the launch vehicle went into a completely wrong orbit.

Finally, in May of this year, the Express satellite again went to the bottom, again buried plans for an early transition to digital broadcasting.

Conclusions and perspectives

As a result of all the above cases, many chiefs lost their jobs. The government has allocated approximately 2 billion rubles for better preparation for this type. As a result, the cost of launching one Proton (including all losses) was equal to that for the American Atlas-5 rocket.

Despite this, the Proton-M launch vehicle remains one of the most important pillars of commercial launches. Even with accidents, the cost of launching into geostationary orbit remains the lowest in the world, and therefore there is no shortage of potential partners and clients for Roscosmos.

New rocket

However, experts have long been saying that Proton-M will soon fly off its own. The fact is that intensive development of the Angara is currently underway. This new block rocket is not only cheaper than its predecessor, but also much easier to manufacture. The Angara uses kerosene-oxygen engines. It can be launched from the Plesetsk and Vostochny cosmodromes without paying astronomical amounts to the Kazakhs for renting the Baikonur.

Despite such bright prospects, the Proton-M launch vehicle will most likely be used for a long time, since the development of new technology is late.

The Proton launch vehicle is a direct successor to the Soviet two-stage intercontinental ballistic missile UR-500, designed in the design bureau headed by Vladimir Chelomey. Its development began in 1961, it soon became clear that it would not go into service because of its excess power, although it was capable of delivering the famous thermonuclear bomb, conditionally called "Kuzkin's mother", to the enemy's territory. The rocket was supposed to be based in the mines, Khrushchev, who once arrived at Baikonur, having learned how much money was needed for this, said:

"So what are we going to build - communism or mines for UR-500?"

The rocket has lost its combat mission, but was refocused on launching satellites. The first launch took place on July 16, 1965 with the laboratory for the study of cosmic particles "Proton". In total, four launches of the two-stage version were performed, of which three were successful. On the basis of this rocket, Chelomei proposed a program for a manned flight around the moon, and another, third stage and a small upper stage were put on the rocket. However, the developers did not have time to implement the program, since they entrusted the design bureau of Sergei Korolev to make the spacecraft and the upper stage. For Chelomey, in fact, only a rocket remained. In total, 11 unmanned spacecraft were launched under the program, 4 of them did not enter the Earth's orbit due to launch vehicle accidents, 4 spacecraft circled the Moon.

One ship in July 1968 was not launched due to an upper stage failure during preparation for launch. In January 1970, the program was closed due to the fact that Soviet Union missed priority in the first manned flight to the Moon (in December 1968, American astronauts on the Apollo 8 spacecraft were the first in the world to fly around the Moon with access to a lunar orbit, and in July 1969 on the Apollo 11 spacecraft landed on the lunar surface). After the flyby program was closed, the rocket, which eventually received the name "Proton", was used in three-stage and four-stage versions to launch spacecraft.

Alexander Shlyadinsky

In the 1970s, the first Soviet orbital stations Salyut and Almaz, as well as interplanetary probes to the Moon, Mars and Venus. The Proton was the only Soviet rocket capable of launching geostationary satellites hovering over a single point on the equator at an altitude of 36,000 km. With a total mass of 700 tons, the rocket delivers 21 tons to low Earth orbit or up to 3.5 tons to geostationary orbit. Launch complexes for Proton were and remain only at Baikonur. In 1993, American and Russian enterprises established Lockheed-Khrunichev-Energia International (LKEI), reorganized in 1995 into International Launch Services (ILS), which since 1996 has been launching foreign satellites on the Proton rocket on a commercial basis.

One step, two steps...

The military past of this rocket determined one of its main differences - all three stages use asymmetric dimethylhydrazine (heptyl) as a fuel and nitrogen tetroxide as an oxidizer. This is due to the fact that a ballistic missile must be in a combat-ready state long before the launch. In contrast, previously developed royal rockets used liquid oxygen as an oxidizer, which evaporates and does not allow for long storage. The disadvantage of long-term fuel is the toxicity of both of its components, the advantage is that it does not require an ignition system, since the fuel itself ignites upon contact with an oxidizing agent.

Unlike the Soyuz, in which both the “sides” of the first stage and the central second stage begin to work simultaneously at the start, the Proton is made according to the optimal scheme with sequential division of stages.

At present, the most advanced modification of the rocket, Proton-M, is used, equipped with uprated engines, lightweight design and digital system management.

In total, there are 11 single-chamber marching engines on the rocket: six of the first, four of the second and one of the third stage. The third stage also has a steering four-chamber engine.

The first stage consists of one central oxidizer tank and six surrounding fuel tanks. Six oscillating RD-276 engines (developed by NPO Energomash and produced by the Perm plant Proton-PM) provide thrust and control of the rocket in the first stage operation area (approximately 120 seconds).

Third stage with booster and load

Alexander Shlyadinsky

The second stage consists of an oxidizer and fuel tank separated by a partition, as well as four oscillating engines (three RD-0210 and one RD-0211) (designed by the Design Bureau of Chemical Automation and manufactured by the Voronezh Mechanical Plant). In addition to creating thrust, RD-0211 generates boost gas to create excess pressure in the tanks.

Stage separation is carried out according to the so-called hot scheme: the engines of the upper stage are turned on before the engines of the lower stage stop. This is done in order to avoid the problem of turning on the engines in zero gravity, since the overload of the rocket is involved in creating the necessary pressure when fuel is supplied to the turbopump. The stage runs for 200 seconds.

The third stage is similar to the second - the upper tank with oxidizer, the lower one with fuel, but it has only one fixed main engine (RD-0213) and one steering RD-0214 with four swing chambers. They also begin to work until the second stage engines are completely turned off. The steering motor actually pulls the payloaded third stage out of the adapter connecting it to the second stage. The third stage runs for approximately 240 seconds.

It is with the operation of the engines of the third stage that at least three accidents of Proton rockets are now associated - the recent one, in 2014, which was caused by the destruction of the steering engine turbopump bearing, and 1988.

“If something in the rocket stops working, the AED command is given -“ emergency shutdown of the engines. This has been going on since the days of combat missiles, so that in case of failure, the missile would fall on our territory. The engines turn off, the rocket falls in the atmosphere and, as a rule, burns out, ”explains Igor Afanasyev, editor of the Novosti kosmonavtiki magazine. Since the rocket costs much less than the launch complex, in emergency cases at the time of launch, the main task is, on the contrary, to take the rocket away from the launch. “Therefore, in the event of a failure or even an explosion of one of the first-stage engines, a command is given to force the remaining ones, and only then is the AED command given,” the expert explained.

degraded

Like, the May reason for the recent Proton accident was all in the same steering motor of the third stage, the failure of which occurred due to "increased vibration loads caused by an increase in the imbalance of the rotor of the turbopump unit, associated with the degradation of the properties of its material under the action of high temperatures and imperfection of the balancing system. At the same time, as it turned out, the refusal "has a constructive character."

To facilitate separation, powder brake motors are provided at the top of the second stage, which help to avoid dangerous stage collisions. After that, the third stage with a load and the upper stage go into transfer or low Earth orbit.

Scheme of insertion into geostationary orbit

The first upper stage, and in fact, the fourth stage of the rocket, appeared during the implementation of the moon flyby program. It is meant to translate spacecraft from low Earth orbit to a flight path to the Moon and other planets, or to geostationary orbit. The booster unit operates autonomously in open space for a long time, functioning in zero gravity, and has its own system of active orientation and stabilization.

On the "Proton" two types of upper stages (RB) are used. Block "D" - oxygen-kerosene (developed by RSC Energia), is mainly used to launch GLONASS devices. "Breeze-M" (GKNPTs named after M.V. Khrunichev) - on long-term components, for launching geostationary satellites. It itself is essentially two-stage - the central part is surrounded by a toroidal block of drop tanks.

The main difference between the RB (it refers not to a rocket, but to a space warhead) from rocket stages is that it can operate in zero gravity, when fuel can collect in the tanks in the form of balls, gas bubbles can appear in it, due to which the engine may choke. Therefore, small powder engines can be used to create weak overloads.

A common task for Proton is the launching of geostationary satellites (36,000 km). To do this, the upper stage must provide the device in a low circular orbit with an additional speed (of the order of 3 km/s) so that it switches from a circular orbit to an elliptical one. And already at the far point of this ellipse, it is necessary to give the apparatus one more impulse in order to inform it of the first cosmic velocity for this height. One of the difficulties is that Baikonur is located far from the equator. Therefore, the orbits of satellites have a high inclination, and to launch a geostationary vehicle, additional impulses from the upper stage are required to “straighten” the orbit and make the satellite hover exactly above the equator.

For the same reason, Proton can send more cargo to the Moon or Mars than to geostationary orbit.

“The Proton scheme has not changed since 1965, but now new technologies are being applied, materials are changing, the efficiency of engines has been slightly increased. The possibility of improvement is strongly tied to the design of the rocket and dimensions. To increase thrust, you need to either increase the pressure in the chambers or increase the nozzle, but this requires changing the dimensions of the rocket and, most importantly, the launch complex, ”Afanasyev explained.

From Filey by train

The rocket is assembled in Fili, at the Khrunichev plant, and in the form of a small number of transportable blocks is sent by a special train to the cosmodrome. Initially, the dimensions of the rocket elements were chosen in such a way that its largest part (the first-stage oxidizer tank with a diameter of 4100 mm), placed in a special elongated car, could be transported without causing problems to oncoming trains and the contact electrical network, pass freely in tunnels and along curved sections of the track . At the same time, in sections with minimal radii of curvature, in order to avoid a collision, it is necessary to stop the movement of trains in the opposite direction. The widest non-separable part of the missiles, up to 5 m in diameter, is the head fairing.

To deliver it by rail, it is divided in half lengthwise and carried in an inclined position.

Unlike aviation, where the investigation of most accidents ends with a public and detailed report of the IAC, the results space accidents in Russia are often made public without proper detail.